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  • Helwan, Egypt; smallholding growing sweet clover
  • Exterior of an 18th century mill. The apprentices were housed in the garrets. Two sheep before and after the coming of the new agriculture (differences in stock, 1680 & 1808).
  • Helwan, Egypt; harvesting sweet clover
  • Helwan, Egypt; harvesting sweet clover
  • Helwan, Egypt; women carrying sweet clover
  • Helwan, Egypt; harvesting sweet clover
  • Helwan, Egypt; rural smallholding
  • Helwan, Egypt; harvesting sweet clover
  • Helwan, Egypt; traditional Egyptian waterwheel
  • Helwan, Egypt; farm cultivation
  • Helwan, Egypt; farm cultivation
  • Helwan, Egypt; traditional ploughing with cattle. A small farmer using a wooden plough pulled by cattle. Although agricultural mechanisation accelerated during the 1980s, it remained limited. The main tasks undergoing mechanisation were ploughing, threshing, and water-pumping. Most tractors were privately owned, usually by large landowners. By 1990, however, there was a widespread private rental market and mechanical ploughing was becoming the norm. It was fairly unusual to see a field this size being hand ploughed. Photographed January 1990.