Name: STT Tour of Smoke and Mirrors
Location: Wellcome Collection

Rob Bidder is an artist based in south-east London and a Visitor Experience Assistant at Wellcome Collection. He also plays music in a ramshackle manner. He is a Gemini with a Libra ascendant.

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Rob Bidder

@robertbidder

Artist

Comic

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Fascia

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Fascia holds you all together like an organic hairnet. Fascia is your friend.

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Sport

Body Squabbles

Skin bleaching today is a global phenomenon, but where did the practice originate? Ngunan Adamu traces the desire for lighter skin from ancient cultures to the European colonialists who exported their prejudice to the people they enslaved.

“Skin lightening, or skin bleaching, is a cosmetic procedure that aims to lighten dark areas of skin or achieve a generally paler skin tone. It's usually used to improve the appearance of blemishes such as birthmarks and melasma (dark patches).

“Skin-lightening procedures work by reducing the concentration or production of melanin in the skin. Melanin is the pigment that gives skin its colour and helps protect it from the sun.”

This is the NHS’s description of what skin bleaching is, which doesn’t sound all that bad; however, it doesn’t include any cultural context. Skin bleaching has become a widespread global phenomenon, and in the UK is mainly used by people from the African, Caribbean and Asian communities.

My fascination with skin bleaching came from my childhood. I was born in Nigeria to a fair-skinned mother and dark-skinned father, where comments such as, “She would be more beautiful if she had taken her mother’s complexion,” or, “She’s getting darker with age,” were normal. 

Growing up in the UK as an adolescent didn’t help either: I regularly heard comments from boys that they would only date light-skinned girls. Defiantly, I wanted to remain darker, but I saw how these comments affected the confidence of many women in the Black community, both in the UK and abroad.

More: How the wellness industry makes you ill.

In Nigeria, being fair gave you access to “hot bachelors” and a lifestyle that only light-skinned women could enjoy, so many women bleached their skin, damaging it irreparably. The cheap, illegal products that they used gave them a sore, pinkish complexion rather than the desirable caramel colour that most of them yearned for.

Today we are perhaps most familiar with the porcelain-white complexions of wealthy Europeans from the 16th century onwards. The most sought-after preparation for this purpose was Venetian ceruse, based on white lead. This extremely toxic mixture caused swelling, skin discoloration, erosion of tooth enamel and hair loss. For a while it even became fashionable to pluck the hairline to create an extremely high forehead, mimicking the effect of ceruse. Death from using lead-based skin preparations was not unknown. 

Professor Shirley Anne Tate, a cultural sociologist at Leeds Beckett University, told me the practice can be traced as far back as the Ancient Egyptians, Romans and Greeks, who discovered that honey mixed with olive oil was a skin-lightening agent, and applied this mixture to their body and face. They also used various precursors to foundation in order to look paler, including chalk dust and a mixture that, as in later centuries, incorporated white lead. 

In the 19th century white women made themselves paler with daily doses of poisonous arsenic wafers. 

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Gift of Richard Holstein. Dr. James P. Campbell's Safe Arsenic Complexion Wafers

Pale skin became desirable because for hundreds of years it was associated with wealth and status. After all, only rich women could afford not to work outside, thereby avoiding the skin-darkening effects of the sun. And it wasn’t only lead that people poisoned themselves with in the pursuit of beauty. By the 19th century, arsenic wafers had become a much-promoted beauty treatment. 

Arsenic was known to be poisonous, but it was thought that tiny amounts would simply induce a fashionable pallor. Unfortunately it was also addictive, so increasing doses were needed to avoid unpleasant withdrawal symptoms. Although the number of deaths from arsenic abuse was not trivial, many arsenic eaters managed to develop a certain tolerance for the poison and showed no signs of chronic poisoning. 

The importance of being pale could be dangerous and addictive, so how did this phenomenon catch on in Africa and Asia? The simple answer is colonialisation and slavery. An American Sociological Society paper explains that: “To justify racial slavery, slave-holding interests espoused a white supremacist ideology which held that persons of African descent were innately inferior to whites. Whiteness became identified with all that is civilised, virtuous and beautiful.”

If you had lighter skin you were closer to the opportunities that were only afforded to white people.

In this context, light-skinned slaves were separated from dark-skinned slaves and were able to work indoors away from the glaring sun. If you had lighter skin you were closer to the opportunities that were only afforded to white people, such as increased privileges, higher social standing, and better employment and marital prospects.

India’s long history of colonisation by European nations including the Portuguese, French, Dutch and British has had a similar effect. Despite India’s independence since 1947, light skin is still associated with higher social standing. A 2018 article on the importance of skin colour in arranged marriage traces this back to white rule, which “led to internalisation of superiority and power of the ‘white’ skin and inferiority and powerlessness of the ‘dark skin’”.

Professor Shirley Anne Tate on the history of skin bleaching

So if your skin was the only barrier stopping you from having access to better opportunities, the obvious question is: why not bleach? Skin bleaching represents one step closer to the social status historically reserved for white people. 

However, although we talk about skin bleaching being a global phenomenon, according to Professor Tate, the majority of people from African and Caribbean backgrounds have a negative opinion of it – socially, politically and culturally. This is due to its connection to white supremacy and colonialism, and is linked to the negative connotations being Black has had for many years. 

Laila, 20: I was told to bleach as a young girl. I was around eight, in a room with my older sister and two of my cousins. My aunt handed me and one of my cousins the bleaching cream and said, “Go and use this.” She said my older sister and other cousin didn’t need to because they were already light. I always knew people with darker skin were mistreated and looked down on, but it was painful coming from my own family.

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Laila

For many, Black skin needs to be protected and prized in its natural state, so to admit to skin bleaching would suggest that you were trying to conform to the ‘white ideal’. In the current climate of ‘being woke’ (being aware of social or racial justice issues) and loving the skin you are in, many are bleaching privately and not wanting others to know they bleach.

But bleaching your skin should not always be seen in a negative light, as people will admit to using skin-lightening products to treat hyperpigmentation, vitiligo or other skin disorders, which we will touch on later in this series.

The truth is, skin-bleaching methods do not get rid of the melanin permanently. This is because the skin is constantly being renewed, which includes the formation of new melanin by melanin-producing cells known as melanocytes. So users can stop at any time if and when they choose to. But the question is, what is the lasting effect of skin bleaching, both physically and psychologically?  

Ngunan Adamu is a radio presenter and producer for BBC Radio Merseyside, CEO and founder of iWoman Academy/Media, and an international multimedia trainer for the BBC.

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Ngunan Adamu

Author

Amaal Said is a Danish-born Somali photographer and poet, based in London. Her photographs have been featured in Vogue, the Guardian and the New Yorker. In 2017, she was exhibited in Los Angeles, and in 2018 her photography was featured in the fourth volume of African Lens and exhibited in Accra, Ghana.

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Amaal Said

Photographer

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Beneath the Skin

A taster from the 15 stories that make up this book about the body.

Explore primary source material on health and wider issues in society and culture.

Medicine Man

Delve into Henry Wellcome’s eclectic collection in our permanent exhibition ‘Medicine Man’.

The widespread practice of skin bleaching has its roots in the Western colonisation and slavery of African and South Asian countries. Ngunan Adamu explores this toxic history.

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Rukia

Ngunan Adamu explores why skin bleaching is still a widespread practice and how it affects the mental and physical health of many people today.

Colonialism and the origins of skin bleaching

The desire for lighter skin

When skin bleaching goes wrong

The case for safe skin bleaching

Identifying skin lightening agents in cosmetics

Enduring taboos and the future of skin bleaching

Skin bleaching is a global practice and lucrative industry that continues to influence our perception of beauty today. Speaking to doctors, trading authorities, historians as well as the people who bleach their skin in secret, Ngunan Adamu examines its harmful effects on the mental and physical health of many men and women. She also considers whether skin lightening can ever be safe, as well as the reasons behind its stigma.

Skin Bleaching

For centuries the human race has been prey to a variety of parasitic worms and lice. And not only do we have a long history as unwilling hosts, it seems that our disgust and embarrassment is also nothing new. 

Recent public health scares in the USA and Europe, along with the personal experiences of millions of parents of young children, demonstrate that parasites continue to be a threat to human health and wellbeing. 

Not surprisingly, parasites are a problem with a long history, as medieval archaeological evidence proves. Excavations of medieval latrines have demonstrated that intestinal parasites were a common complaint, while bodily remains prove that even the very rich were not exempt. Richard III was infected with roundworm when he died at Bosworth and King Ferdinand of Naples (1467–96) had both head and pubic lice. 

Faced with such evidence, we tend to assume that although medieval people suffered from the same complaints as us, they were less bothered by them. In fact, medieval people shared our disgust and were far from passive in their approach to this medical problem. 

Medieval attitudes to parasites were shaped by medical ideas prevalent at the time. We now know that parasites are usually transmitted by human contact or by infected food, but medieval doctors believed that they spontaneously generated in ‘corrupt matter’. 

Gilbert the Englishman (c. 1180–1250) wrote that “worms of various shapes are engendered in a man’s guts”, a process which was believed to occur when those organs contained an excess of phlegmatic humours, which might be produced by overeating or by eating the wrong foods. So worms were treated using bitter, purgative plants such as wormwood or gentian, which would both kill the worms and expel them by provoking a nasty bout of diarrhoea. 

This worm evidently required more aggressive treatment than a mere purgative.

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Das VII capitel diss fierden tractates würt dich leren so ein mensch slangen oder and würm desglychen würm in dem lybe hat.

Nits and lice seemed to grow in dirt and bodily secretions, both in the hair and on the skin. They could be killed with ointments, many of which contained noxious substances such as mercury. Personal grooming was also important: treatments often included washing, and most medieval combs had a fine-toothed section similar to a modern nit comb. 

Women were often responsible for delousing their loved ones. In 14th-century Montaillou, for example, a peasant woman named Vuissane Testanière recalled how two of her neighbours sat chatting in the sun as their daughters deloused them.  

Medieval people also had to deal with some less familiar creatures: because parasites were a product of corruption, they could occur in some unexpected parts of the body. Toothache was widely believed to be caused by ‘toothworms’, which lived in dental cavities and had to be smoked out of the body using burning henbane or camomile seeds. 

More: The dangers of retrospective diagnosis.

Today we use the term ‘earworm’ for catchy tunes, but in earlier centuries earworms were thought to be creatures that caused an itching, tingling sensation, and were treated using the same bitter liquids as intestinal worms. Alternatively, the physician Gilbert the Englishman (c. 1180–1250) suggested leaving a warm, ripe apple next to the ear overnight. In the morning, the worm should be found in the middle of the fruit. 

Although the sheer number of surviving recipes for treating parasites suggests that they were a serious problem for medieval people, it also indicates that – for the most part – people were unwilling hosts to these unpleasant guests. 

One possible exception to this rule was the clergy. Holy men and women were thought to be prone to parasites due to their lack of grooming and their frequent consumption of phlegmatic foods, especially fish. In the 13th century, the German prior and author Caesarius of Heisterbach (c. 1180–1240) worried that the vermin and lice that commonly infested the brethren’s robes would serve as a deterrent to would-be monks. 

But the association between parasites and piety could also be seen as a positive thing. During the canonisation process for Thomas de Cantilupe, Bishop of Hereford (c. 1218–82), his servants testified about the vast quantities of lice that had covered his clothing, sometimes as many as a man could hold in his hand. This was seen as a positive thing, demonstrating his humility and asceticism. 

One 15th-century holy woman, Catherine of Genoa (1447–1510), went even further. Filled with disgust at the lice that infested the sick women to whom she ministered, she was instructed by ‘the Spirit’ to eat a handful of them, and thus overcame her repugnance.   

That such behaviour could be thought saintly suggests that most people considered heavy infestation with parasites to be both unusual and disgusting. During the Third Crusade (1189–92), according to the Norman poet Ambroise, the only women who were permitted to travel with the army were “the good old charwomen… who washed heads and linen and were deft as monkeys in removing fleas”.

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Historia medica, in qua libris IV. animalium natura, et eorum medica utilitas exacte & luculenter tractantur., 1638

When Thomas de Cantilupe’s old clothes were given away to paupers, they had to be deloused – even those poor enough to need charity would be reluctant to accept such dirty garments. And in later 15th-century Mantua, prisoners complained that they were “dying of hunger… [and] beset with bedbugs, fleas and lice”. 

That even marginal members of medieval society were disturbed by potential contact with parasites surely shows that, while medical ideas about parasites may have changed over the centuries, human reactions to them have not. 

In our very visceral reactions to nits, lice and worms, we have rather more in common with our distant ancestors than we might think.

Dr Katherine Harvey is a medieval historian based at Birkbeck, University of London. She is the author of ‘Episcopal Appointments in England, c. 1214–c. 1344’ (Ashgate, 2014), and is currently writing books on the medieval episcopal body (for OUP) and medieval sex (for Reaktion).

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Katherine Harvey

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Ortus sanitatis, 1491

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You, a thousand years ago

Read about the nitty-gritty detail of life, death and art in the Middle Ages in this extract by Jack Hartnell.

Check out the striking cover and read 1896 book ‘Our household insects: an account of the insect-pests found in dwelling-houses’

Visit Medicine Man to reflect on how people have dealt with health concerns, including bugs infestations, through history.

Humans have been reluctant hosts to a plethora of unpleasant parasites for centuries. And medieval evidence shows our modern distaste for these little irritations is just as ancient.

Parasites and pests from the medieval to the modern

Now seen as one of the most popular forms of exercise, the health-giving properties of swimming have not always been recognised. This gallery enters the murky depths of 16th-century rivers, breathes the bracing air of the Regency seaside and dives into a modernist swimming pool to chart the course from water as site of danger to a space of health.   

Ross MacFarlane is a Research Development Specialist at Wellcome Collection. He has researched, written, and lectured on the Collection and other topics at the intersection of death, folklore, and medicine.

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Ross MacFarlane

Image gallery

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- Margate, Kent: a woman swimming in the sea; in the background people are looking out to sea from cliffs and a beach

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Two health centres, two ideologies

Read more about the work of the Peckham Pioneer Health Centre Experiment and see a picture of the pool as viewed from the cafe.

Browse 1907 book ‘Swimming pools: their construction; mechanical installation; water supply; heating the water; various types of installations adapted to different conditions; with thirty illustrations and charts.’

The Reading Room

Visit the Reading Room areas on body and breath to read more about swimming and other exercises and their effect on health.

Now one of the most popular forms of exercise, the health-giving properties of swimming have not always been recognised. Dive into a gallery that charts the course from water as site of danger to a space of health.

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Contents of Henry Wellcome's pockets when he died

Explore stories inspired by the objects, manuscripts and more in our archives.

Stories inspired by the objects, manuscripts and more in our archives.

From Our Collections

Backstroke to the future

Schools

Join us for a new two-session workshop developed for SEND students, during which they’ll explore our amazing human senses. 

During the first session at your school, students will be introduced to Wellcome Collection and its founder, Henry Wellcome. They’ll learn about Henry’s passion for medical history and different cultures, and will use each of their senses to investigate fascinating objects and images. 

In the second session, at Wellcome Collection, students will become ‘scientists’ – exploring our ‘Medicine Now’ gallery to learn more about how our human senses work, and creating a digital artwork based on their experiences. 

The first session lasts 60 minutes and will be delivered at a date and time to suit your group and its facilitator. We'll work with you to schedule a date one to two weeks before your booked visit. 

The second session at Wellcome Collection lasts 90 minutes and can be booked on either of the dates shown below. We can change its length or start time to fit the needs of your group. 



Our SEND sessions have been developed in consultation with schools to ensure they are challenging and adaptable. They can be enjoyed by a wide range of students with a variety of needs: from mild learning disabilities through to profound and multiple learning disabilities.

'Talking Sense' has been designed for groups of 5 to 10 students aged 14 to 19, plus accompanying staff. When you book, we’ll send you preparation materials to use with your group ahead of your visit. This workshop links to science and life skills curricula.

SEND workshop

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Camden Summer University project

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We’ll be in the Studio on level 1. When you enter Wellcome Collection, head up the stairs or take the lift, then follow the signs. 

The Studio

Your school or college can book a maximum of two study days per term. To secure your booking, you'll need to complete and return the required forms promptly.

All study days and events are free, but we charge a fee for cancellation or significant changes to your group size made within three weeks of your visit. Both policies are explained fully in the agreement we ask you to sign ahead of your visit.

School booking conditions

A two-session workshop on the human senses, designed for students aged 14 to 19 with learning disabilities.

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Interactive sessions inspired by our collections, linked to science and life skills curricula.

SEND Schools Workshops

Talking Sense

Your Art and Design students will get insight into the professional practice of graphic designers as they complete a range of activities inspired by health and medicine. They will work in small groups, proposing concepts and designs, identifying effective language to communicate their message, developing their concepts and pitching their ideas.

We have developed this study day for groups of students aged 14 to 19. There is a GCSE version and post-16 version (A level, BTEC, UAL). You can bring 15 to 30 students, accompanied by staff at a ratio of 1:10.

Due to the small scale of our free programme, we take bookings exclusively from schools in the Greater London area until Monday 10th December; after that all schools and colleges are welcome to get in touch.

Study day

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Design for Life school study day

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Your Art and Design students will get insight into the professional practice of graphic designers with activities inspired by health and medicine.

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Medicine Now gallery

Active and engaging, to drive your students' creative and critical skills.

Study Days

Design for Life

Join us for a night of words and music to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the Wellcome Book Prize.

Take a seat and hear from current and former Wellcome Book Prize judges and shortlisted authors on a range of topics touching on health and medicine. 

Included in the ticket price is a free limited-edition David Shrigley ‘Books are My Bag’ tote and a drink. 

Book Slam is London’s leading literary shindig.

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Book Slam

Book Slam website

Collaborator

Salena Godden is a poet, performer and the author of a literary memoir, ‘Springfield Road’, and poetry books ‘Fishing in the Aftermath’ and ‘Under the Pier’. She is a regular guest on BBC programmes and a regular headliner at literary and music festivals.

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Salena Godden

Host

Elif Shafak is an award-winning author and Chair of the 2019 Wellcome Book Prize judging panel. 

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Elif Shafak

Wellcome Book Prize Judging Panel

Speaker

Philippa Perry is a psychotherapist, agony aunt and author of ‘The Book You Wish Your Parents Had Read’. A faculty member of the School of Life, she has worked on the BBC Radio 4 programme ‘The Age of Emotion’ and contributed towards the radio documentary ‘Humiliation’. 

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Day	Times
Monday	Closed
Tuesday	10:00—18:00
Wednesday	10:00—18:00
Thursday	10:00—22:00
Friday	10:00—18:00
Saturday	10:00—18:00
Sunday	11:00—18:00

Day	Times
Monday	10:00—18:00
Tuesday	10:00—18:00
Wednesday	10:00—18:00
Thursday	10:00—20:00
Friday	10:00—18:00
Saturday	10:00—16:00
Sunday	Closed

Day	Galleries	Library
Mon	Closed	10:00—18:00
Tue	10:00—18:00	10:00—18:00
Wed	10:00—18:00	10:00—18:00
Thu	10:00—22:00	10:00—20:00
Fri	10:00—18:00	10:00—18:00
Sat	10:00—18:00	10:00—16:00
Sun	11:00—18:00	Closed

Day	Times
Monday	Closed
Tuesday	11:00—18:00
Wednesday	11:00—18:00
Thursday	11:00—22:00
Friday	11:00—18:00
Saturday	11:00—18:00
Sunday	11:00—18:00

Day	Times
Monday	08:30—18:00
Tuesday	08:30—18:00
Wednesday	08:30—18:00
Thursday	08:30—22:00
Friday	08:30—18:00
Saturday	09:30—18:00
Sunday	10:30—18:00

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The free museum and library for the incurably curious

This week at Wellcome Collection

Global Clinic

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Design for Life

Book Slam x Wellcome Book Prize

Perspective Tour with Bobby Lloyd

The Psychology of Magic

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